This winter season has brought a rise in influenza and RSV activity in Maryland and in many parts of the country. It is also important to remember other potentially lethal infections that are prevalent in the winter and early spring months, such as Neisseria meningitidis. In fact, a recent study2 showed a potential increase in meningococcal disease when influenza and RSV activity is high.

What:
Encapsulated, gram-negative diplococcus
Where:
Found in nasopharyngeal secretions, carrier rates 2-30% in normal populations
Who:
Age of incidence has 2 peaks: children < 2 years old, teens 15-19 years old
Young adults who live in shared housing, such as college dorms and military recruits

Clinical Presentation:
Early non-specific symptoms of URI, fever, malaise, myalgias
Meningitis: non-specific prodrome + headache, stiff neck (not found in younger children who often present atypically with irritability and/or vomiting)
Meningococcemia: above symptoms + hypotension + petechial rash (>60% of patients)

Treatment:
Early (!) antibiotics: 3rd generation cephalosporins (<3mo: cefotaxime; older infants, children, and teens: ceftriaxone); PCN G is antibiotic of choice for susceptible isolates
Early and aggressive management of shock

Prevention:
Tetravalent vaccine, MCV4 (Menactra, Menveo), available for serogroups A, C, Y and W-135 is given routinely at age 11-12 years old with an additional booster at 16-17 years old. MCV4 does not protect against serogroup B which accounts for 30% of infections.
 

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Question

Patient:  A 10 year old female is brought to the ED after swallowing 2 beads (see image).  Based on the findings, what are your concerns and what is the disposition?

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• CDC recommends pediatric influenza antiviral treatment for those at higher risk for influenza complications, and include the following:

1. less than 2 years of age;
2. chronic diseases including: pulmonary (ie asthma), cardiovascular (except hypertension alone), renal, hepatic, hematologic (ie sickle cell disease), metabolic (ie diabetes), neurologic/neurodevelopmental (ie cerebral palsy, epilepsy), and intellectual disability (ie mental retardation)
3. immunosuppression (ie HIV)
4. less than 19 years of age and on chronic aspirin treatment;
5. morbid obesity (BMI>40)

• adamantanes (amantadine and rimantadine) should not be used due to high levels of resistance to influenza A
• neuraminadase inhibitors (oseltamivir and zanamivir) should be started within 48 hours of illness onset to reduce the duration and severity of disease
• oseltamivir can be used in children as young as 2 weeks of age at a dose of 3mg/kg twice daily for 5 days.

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Rotavirus is the leading cause of gastroenteritis worldwide and a leading cause of infant death in the developing world.

95% of U.S. children have had a rotavirus infection by the age of 5 years.

Most cases occur in late winter and early spring.

Route of transmission is mostly fecal-oral but may be airborne in cooler months.

Most common presenting signs and symptoms include fever (1/3 of cases), vomiting (in the first 1-2 days), and diarrhea (copious, watery, lasting 5-21 days).

Diagnosis is largely based on clinical manifestations, but antigen assays are available and may be useful in patients with extraintestinal complications, such as hepatitis, pneumonitis, or encephalopathy.

Treatment is largely supportive with efforts to maintain hydration.

Prevention is key to disease control and accomplished with good hand hygiene and widespread vaccination.

Newly implemented vaccine programs worldwide have proven to be effective in decreasing hospitalizations and deaths in developing countries.

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Parents bring in their child who placed a bead, seed, or other object up her nose.  What do you do?  Who should you call?

Research suggests that a decades-old home remedy (of sorts) known as the “mother’s kiss” may do the trick for children 1-8 years of age. It’s also much less invasive or frightening than some of the tools and techniques used in emergency departments with a success rate approaching 60%

What Is the “Mother’s Kiss”?

First described in 1965, here’s how the mother’s kiss technique works:

• The parent or caretaker places their mouth over their child’s mouth while holding the unaffected nostril closed with one finger.
• The parent or caretaker blows into the child’s mouth.
• The forceful breath may force the object out (warning: may want to wear protective covering as other things have been known to fly out as well!)

Epidemiology:

Trampoline injuries doubled between 1991 and 1996, increasing from 39,000 injuries per year to more then 83,000 injuries per year.  Injury rates and trampoline sales peaked in 2004 and have been decreasing since; however, hospitalization rates are still between 3% and 14%.

Risk Factors:

¾ of injuries occur when multiple people are on the trampoline at once

Smaller participants were 14x more likely to be injured then their heavier playmates

Falls account for 27-39% of all injuries

Springs and frames account for 20% of injuries

Up to ½ of injuries occur despite adult supervision

Injury types:

Lower extremity injuries are more common than upper extremity

Head and neck injuries accounted for 10-17% of trampoline injuries

Unique Injuries:

Proximal tibial fractures

Manubriosternal dislocations and sternal injuries

Vertebral artery dissection

Atlanto-axial subluxation

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Question

A 1 year old gets sent from their pediatrician’s office for rule out meningitis. They presented with fever for 2 days and neck rigidity. Your LP results are normal. What additional test should you consider?
 

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Conventional pediatric nasal cannula can safely deliver up to 4 lpm but are limited by cooling and drying of the airway. This leads to decreased airway patency, nasal mucosal injury, bleeding and possibly increase in coagulase negative staph infections.

HFNC delivers flow up to 40 lpm with 95-100% relative humidity at a controlled temperature. In infants, the initial flow rate is set between 2-4 lpm and can be increased to 8 lpm. Older children and can be started at 10 lpm and increased as high as 40 lpm. Oxygen is also adjustable.

Studies have shown improved comfort, respiratory rate and oxygenation compared to nasal CPAP.

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• approximately 1% of children in DKA have some degree of cerebral edema, and up to 25% of them may die
• known risk factors include the following:

1. younger children (especially <5 years)
2. new onset or newly diagnosed
3. increased BUN at presentation
4. severity of acidosis at presentation
5. bicarbonate therapy use
6. failure of sodium to improve following therapy

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We often ask our pediatric patients if there vaccines are up to date, but what does this mean?

Hepatitis B: birth, 2 and 6 months

Diphtheria/Tetanus and Acellular Pertussis: 2, 4 and 6 months

Pneumococcal vaccine: 2, 4 and 6 months

Haemophilus influenzae B : 2, 4 and 6 months

Polio: 2, 4 and 6 months

Rotavirus: 2 and 4 months or 2, 4 and 6 months depending on the brand. 

Influenza: 6 months and older

Children less than 8 years old should receive 2 doses of flu vaccine at least 4 weeks apart during the first flu season that they are immunized.  Children older than 2 years are eligible for the nasal vaccine if they do not have asthma, wheezing in the past 12 months or other medical conditions that predispose them to flu complications.

To see the full vaccine schedule including exact time frames between doses and catch up schedules, see: http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/schedules/downloads/child/0-6yrs-schedule-pr.pdf

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The incidence of pediatric syncope is common with 15%-25% of children and adolescents experiencing at least one episode of syncope before adulthood. Incidence peaks between the ages of 15 and 19 years for both sexes.

Although most causes of pediatric syncope are benign, an appropriate evaluation must be performed to exclude rare life-threatening disorders. In contrast to adults, vasodepressor syncope (also known as vasovagal) is the most frequent cause of pediatric syncope (61%–80%).  Cardiac disorders only represent 2% to 6% of pediatric cases but account for 85% of sudden death in children and adolescent athletes.  17% of young athletes with sudden death have a history of syncope.

Key features on history and physical examination for identifying high-risk patients include exercise-related symptoms, a family history of sudden death, a history of cardiac disease, an abnormal cardiac examination, or an abnormal ECG.

• sleep disruption silimar to a nightmare, but much more dramatic most often between 4-12 years
• sudden fear reaction which occurs during the transition to and from deep non-REM sleep while nightmares occur during REM sleep
• occurs 2-3 hours after falling asleep when the child suddenly awakens in distress and may thrash about, scream, cry
• child returns to sleep with no memory of the event the following morning
• often occurs when a child is stressed, overtired, on new medication, or sleeping in a new environment
• do not awaken the child during the event but rather allow them to calm on their own

If concern arises on screening assessment, keep child in hard cervical collar and image (may start with x-ray and progress to CT if still concerned and x-rays negative).

If imaging negative, but persistent suspicion based on neurological deficits consider SCIWORA (Spinal Cord Injury WithOut Radiographic Abnormality) which exists in up to 50% of children with cervical cord injury, and may require MRI to further identify injury.

Types:
- Uniphasic anaphylaxis: occuring immediately after exposure to allergen, resolves over minutes to hours and does not recur
- Biphasic anaphylaxis: occuring after apparent resolution of symptoms typically 8 hours after the first reaction. Occur in up to 23% of adults and up to 11% of children with anaphylaxis

Treatment:
1. First line: IM epinephrine 1:1000 solution
   - vasoconstrictor effects on hypotension and peripheral vasodilation; bronchodilator effects on upper respiratory obstruction
   - NO absolute contraindication for use in anaphylaxis
   - Dosage: Adult: 0.3 - 0.5mg; Peds: 0.01mg/kg (max 0.3mg)
   - can be repeated every 5-15 minutes
2. Adjunctive therapy:
   - H1 Blocker: diphenhydramine 1-2mg/kg up to 50mg IV
   - H2 Blocker: ranitidine 1-2mg/kg
   - Corticosteroid: 1-2 mg/kg for prevention of biphasic reactions
   - Bronchodilator: Albuterol for bronchospasm
   - Glucagon: for refractory hypotension or if patient is on beta blocker
          - Dosage: Adult: 1-5 mg; Peds 20-30microgm/kg
          - Dose may be repeated or followed by infusion of 5-15 mg/min
   - place patient in recumbent position if tolerated with lower extremities elevated
   - supplemental O2
   - IV fluids for hypotension

Fatalities: typically seen with peanut or treenut ingestions from cardiopulmonary arrest. Associated with delayed or inappropriate epinephrine dosing

Disposition:
   - Mild reaction with symptom resolution: observe for 4-6 hrs (ACEP, AAP)
   - Recurrent symptoms or incomplete resolution: admit

Reference:
1. World Allergy Organization Guidelines for the Assessment and Management of Anaphylaxis, Feb 2011
2. Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Food Allergy in the United States: Report of the NIAID-Sponsored Expert Panel Oct 2010

If you have a patient who meets (or has had close exposure to someone meeting) the clinical case definition of pertussis (a cough lasting at least 2 weeks with one of the following: paroxysms of coughing, inspiratory “whoop,” or post-tussive vomiting) here are some important points to keep in mind:

Vaccination

• Be wary that children younger than 7 might not be “up to date” for pertussis vaccination.
  • The recommended schedule is four primary doses of DTap at 2, 4, 6 and 15-18 months, and a fifth DTap booster at 4- 6 years old. ACIP now recommends kids 7 and older get a Tdap booster if their immunizations were previously incomplete.

Testing

• The available testing modalities for routine surveillance are culture and/or PCR (from a posterior nasopharyngeal swab or aspirate) and serologic testing.
  • Serologic results are not currently accepted as laboratory confirmation for purposes of national surveillance, but may be more useful for testing patients in the convalescent stage.

Treatment

• The CDC recommends treatment of clinical or confirmed cases with one of these regimens:
  • Azithromycin daily x 5 days
  • Clarithromycin BID x 7 days
  • Erythromycin QID x 14 days
  • Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (Bactrim) BID x 14 days if resistance or allergy to macrolides
    • However, a 2011-updated Cochrane review showed that short-term antibiotics (azithromycin for 3-5 days, or clarithromycin or erythromycin for 7 days) were as effective as long-term (erythromycin for 10-14 days)  (RR 1.01) (95% CI  0.98-1.04). Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole for seven days was also effective.
• Insufficient evidence to decide whether there is clear benefit for treating healthy contacts, but the CDC does recommend prophylactic treatment of close contacts and family members.

References:

Altunaiji SM, Kukuruzovic RH, Curtis NC, Massie J. Antibiotics for whooping cough (pertussis). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2007, Issue 3. Art. No.: CD004404. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004404.pub3

http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/surv-manual/chpt10-pertussis.html

• small growth of grainy pink/redish tissue that forms on an area of the umbilical stump which is inflamed and produces a sticky mucous dishcarge not allowing normal tissue to grow on top of it
• caused by abnormal tissue healing after the remaining umbilical cord dries up and falls off
• treatment is painless as the granuloma lacks innervation, and requires applying chemical silver nitrate directly to the granumloma to burn the tissue off
• although rare, careful examination of the tissue is needed to enssure the tissue is not intestinal or bladder in origin